The potential to seize pictures with prolonged shutter speeds on cell units operating the Android working system permits for the creation of images exhibiting movement blur or enhanced brightness in low-light circumstances. As an example, capturing mild trails from passing automobiles at night time or smoothing the floor of flowing water are typical functions.
This photographic approach extends the artistic potential of cell pictures, enabling customers to realize results historically related to devoted cameras. Its rising accessibility on smartphones empowers a wider viewers to experiment with and recognize creative picture creation. The evolution of cell digicam expertise and software program algorithms has facilitated the rising prevalence of this functionality.
The following sections will element particular strategies, obtainable functions, {hardware} issues, and potential challenges related to attaining optimum outcomes. Moreover, post-processing strategies for refining pictures captured utilizing this method can be mentioned, together with comparisons to conventional digicam workflows.
1. Shutter Pace Management
Shutter pace management is a foundational component in attaining efficient lengthy exposures utilizing an Android digicam. The length for which the digicam’s sensor is uncovered to mild immediately correlates with the diploma of movement blur captured and the general brightness of the ensuing picture. With out guide or semi-manual management over shutter pace, the potential for realizing creative lengthy publicity results is severely restricted. As an example, trying to seize the sleek, ethereal look of a waterfall necessitates the power to set a shutter pace of a number of seconds, a feat not potential with out exact shutter pace administration.
The interplay between shutter pace and different digicam settings, reminiscent of ISO and aperture, turns into crucial in Android cell pictures as a result of limitations inherent in smaller digicam sensors. Whereas an extended shutter pace will increase mild consumption, it might probably additionally result in overexposure in daylight circumstances. Conversely, insufficient shutter speeds might end in underexposed or noisy pictures in low-light situations. Superior digicam functions typically present choices to regulate these parameters in tandem, providing larger artistic flexibility. Moreover, the real-time preview of the publicity final result permits the photographer to regulate the shutter pace accordingly.
Mastery of shutter pace management is paramount for anybody in search of to create compelling lengthy publicity images with an Android system. The capability to finely tune the publicity length to match the precise scene and desired creative impact defines the effectiveness of this photographic approach. Challenges reminiscent of movement blur from digicam shake and correct publicity settings have to be fastidiously addressed to provide visually pleasing outcomes. The importance of shutter pace management extends past mere technical proficiency, turning into a crucial side of creative expression when utilized to Android-based cell pictures.
2. Picture Stabilization
Within the context of lengthy publicity pictures with Android cameras, picture stabilization is paramount for minimizing blur ensuing from digicam shake throughout prolonged shutter speeds. The longer the sensor is uncovered, the extra prone the picture turns into to distortions brought on by even minor actions. Efficient picture stabilization, whether or not optical or digital, counteracts these actions, contributing to sharper, extra detailed closing pictures. With out sufficient stabilization, the potential advantages of a protracted publicity, reminiscent of capturing movement blur of water or mild trails, might be negated by undesirable total blur.
The effectiveness of picture stabilization varies throughout totally different Android units and digicam functions. Optical Picture Stabilization (OIS) bodily compensates for digicam shake by shifting the digicam lens or sensor, proving more practical than Digital Picture Stabilization (DIS), which depends on software program algorithms to right for movement. Examples of real-world situations highlighting this significance embody capturing cityscapes at night time the place lengthy exposures are obligatory to assemble ample mild. With out strong picture stabilization, the ensuing pictures would seemingly be blurred and lack the sharpness wanted to render nice particulars.
Finally, picture stabilization is an indispensable element of attaining high-quality lengthy publicity images utilizing Android units. It mitigates the detrimental results of digicam shake, enabling sharper particulars and clearer movement blur results. Whereas developments in stabilization expertise proceed to enhance, understanding its limitations and supplementing it with exterior assist reminiscent of a tripod stays essential for optimizing lengthy publicity outcomes. The mixing of picture stabilization immediately impacts the feasibility and visible attraction of cell lengthy publicity pictures.
3. Mild Sensitivity (ISO)
Within the realm of lengthy publicity pictures utilizing Android cameras, mild sensitivity, or ISO, performs a crucial position in figuring out picture brightness and noise ranges. Balancing ISO with shutter pace and aperture is important for optimum outcomes.
-
ISO and Publicity Period
When using prolonged shutter speeds, the ISO setting immediately impacts the picture’s total publicity. Decrease ISO values (e.g., 100, 200) require longer publicity instances to realize correct brightness, decreasing the chance of overexposure in brighter circumstances. In low-light conditions, a better ISO setting could also be obligatory, however on the expense of elevated picture noise. The interaction between ISO and shutter pace necessitates cautious consideration to realize the specified publicity with out sacrificing picture high quality.
-
Noise Artifacts at Excessive ISO
Android cameras, notably these with smaller sensors, are prone to producing noticeable noise artifacts when utilizing excessive ISO values (e.g., 800, 1600, or larger). These artifacts manifest as grainy or speckled textures, detracting from picture readability. Whereas post-processing strategies can mitigate noise, they typically end in a lack of finer particulars. Subsequently, prioritizing decrease ISO settings and compensating with longer exposures (when potential) is mostly most popular to reduce noise in lengthy publicity pictures.
-
ISO Invariance and Dynamic Vary
Some Android cameras exhibit a level of ISO invariance, which means that adjusting the ISO in post-processing yields outcomes corresponding to adjusting it throughout seize. This may be advantageous for recovering particulars from underexposed lengthy publicity pictures with out drastically rising noise. Nonetheless, the dynamic vary of the digicam sensor nonetheless limits the quantity of element that may be recovered. Understanding the ISO traits of a particular Android digicam is helpful for optimizing publicity settings throughout seize and maximizing flexibility in post-processing.
-
Sensible Issues
In observe, the optimum ISO setting for lengthy publicity Android pictures relies on a mix of things together with ambient mild ranges, desired shutter pace, and the digicam’s noise efficiency. Using a tripod and impartial density filters can permit for decrease ISO values for use even in vivid circumstances, thereby minimizing noise and maximizing picture high quality. Experimentation and cautious analysis of take a look at pictures are essential for figuring out the perfect stability between ISO, shutter pace, and aperture in a given state of affairs.
The efficient utilization of ISO in lengthy publicity Android pictures entails a nuanced understanding of its relationship with shutter pace, noise, and dynamic vary. By fastidiously contemplating these elements and leveraging applicable equipment, photographers can obtain visually interesting and technically sound lengthy publicity pictures with their cell units.
4. Aperture Adjustment
Aperture adjustment, although typically mounted on many Android digicam implementations, immediately influences the depth of subject and the quantity of sunshine reaching the sensor throughout a protracted publicity. Whereas superior smartphone cameras might provide a variable aperture, the bulk function with a hard and fast setting. This mounted aperture, together with the chosen shutter pace and ISO, dictates the general publicity. A wider aperture (smaller f-number) permits extra mild to enter the digicam, enabling shorter publicity instances or decrease ISO settings. Conversely, a narrower aperture (bigger f-number), if obtainable, reduces the quantity of sunshine, necessitating longer publicity instances or larger ISO settings. In conditions the place prolonged publicity instances are desired to seize movement blur, the mounted aperture can turn out to be a limiting issue, requiring the usage of impartial density filters to manage the sunshine getting into the lens.
The sensible implication of a hard and fast aperture in Android cameras for lengthy publicity pictures manifests in varied situations. For instance, capturing mild trails at night time necessitates lengthy shutter speeds. The mounted aperture of the Android digicam might end in overexposure, even on the lowest ISO setting. In such situations, impartial density filters are important to scale back the sunshine depth, permitting for the specified lengthy publicity with out overexposing the picture. Equally, when aiming to easy water in daylight, lengthy publicity instances are required. The mounted aperture, even at its smallest potential setting, may nonetheless permit an excessive amount of mild, once more making impartial density filters essential for attaining the specified impact.
In abstract, understanding the aperture limitations of an Android digicam is important for profitable lengthy publicity pictures. The interaction between the mounted aperture, shutter pace, and ISO dictates the publicity. Whereas the dearth of aperture management presents a problem, it may be successfully mitigated utilizing impartial density filters. These filters provide a sensible answer to manage the quantity of sunshine, enabling the achievement of creative lengthy publicity results that will in any other case be unattainable. Consciousness of those constraints and the suitable use of equipment ensures optimum leads to varied lighting circumstances.
5. RAW Picture Format
The RAW picture format represents a crucial asset in lengthy publicity pictures performed with Android cameras, providing vital benefits over compressed codecs like JPEG. This format preserves all picture knowledge captured by the sensor, offering most flexibility throughout post-processing. The power to control publicity, white stability, and element with out irreversible knowledge loss is paramount for attaining optimum leads to demanding lengthy publicity situations.
-
Preservation of Dynamic Vary
RAW recordsdata retain a considerably wider dynamic vary in comparison with JPEGs. In lengthy publicity pictures, the place scenes typically embody each very vivid and really darkish areas, the power to get well particulars from each the highlights and shadows is essential. Overexposed highlights or underexposed shadows in JPEG pictures are sometimes unrecoverable, whereas RAW recordsdata present the info obligatory for intensive changes.
-
Superior White Steadiness Management
Lengthy publicity pictures might be considerably affected by ambient mild circumstances. RAW format permits for non-destructive white stability changes throughout post-processing. The photographer can exactly fine-tune the colour temperature and tint to realize a extra correct or aesthetically pleasing consequence. With JPEGs, changes are restricted as a result of compression, typically main to paint artifacts.
-
Enhanced Noise Discount Capabilities
Prolonged publicity instances steadily introduce noise into pictures, notably with smaller Android digicam sensors. RAW recordsdata allow extra refined noise discount strategies throughout post-processing. Software program can leverage the uncompressed knowledge to establish and cut back noise with out sacrificing as a lot element as can be the case with a compressed JPEG.
-
Larger Element Retention and Sharpening
RAW format permits for larger management over sharpening and element enhancement. Changes might be made with out introducing undesirable artifacts or exacerbating present noise. The uncompressed nature of the file permits for extra exact and nuanced sharpening strategies that may reveal finer particulars within the lengthy publicity picture.
In conclusion, whereas Android cameras provide rising capabilities for lengthy publicity pictures, the usage of RAW picture format considerably enhances the artistic management and closing picture high quality. The format’s skill to protect a larger quantity of information permits for intensive post-processing changes that will be unattainable or detrimental with compressed codecs like JPEG, in the end making it an indispensable software for critical cell lengthy publicity photographers.
6. Tripod Utilization
Secure assist is paramount when using prolonged shutter speeds on Android cameras. Tripod utilization immediately addresses the inherent instability of handheld pictures, mitigating digicam shake and enabling sharp, detailed pictures in lengthy publicity situations.
-
Mitigation of Digicam Shake
The first operate of a tripod in lengthy publicity pictures is to eradicate blur brought on by unintentional digicam motion through the publicity. That is particularly essential for Android units, which, resulting from their light-weight building, are notably prone to vibration. A tripod offers a steady platform, guaranteeing that the digicam stays stationary all through the length of the publicity. As an example, capturing the sleek, blurred movement of water in a stream requires shutter speeds of a number of seconds; with no tripod, the ensuing picture can be noticeably blurred, negating the specified impact.
-
Enhancement of Picture Sharpness
Past merely stopping blur, a tripod contributes to total picture sharpness. Refined actions, undetectable to the bare eye, can nonetheless degrade picture high quality at longer shutter speeds. The soundness afforded by a tripod ensures that the best particulars are rendered clearly, maximizing the decision of the Android digicam. Cityscape pictures at night time, the place lengthy exposures are used to assemble ample mild, exemplifies this profit. The usage of a tripod permits for the seize of crisp particulars in distant buildings and buildings, producing a extra visually compelling picture.
-
Facilitation of Composition and Framing
A tripod not solely stabilizes the digicam but additionally permits extra deliberate composition. By securely positioning the system, the photographer can meticulously body the scene and make exact changes to the composition. That is notably advantageous in panorama pictures, the place refined modifications in digicam angle can considerably alter the angle and affect of the picture. The soundness of a tripod permits for cautious consideration of the scene and fine-tuning of the composition earlier than capturing the lengthy publicity shot.
-
Enabling Use of Equipment
Tripod utilization typically facilitates the employment of different equipment helpful for lengthy publicity pictures. Impartial density filters, for instance, require exact and steady positioning to keep away from vignetting or uneven publicity. A tripod offers the required platform for these filters, permitting photographers to manage mild ranges and prolong publicity instances with out compromising picture high quality. Equally, distant shutter releases can be utilized together with a tripod to additional reduce digicam shake, guaranteeing the sharpest potential pictures.
The steady assist offered by a tripod is due to this fact indispensable for attaining optimum leads to lengthy publicity pictures with Android cameras. By mitigating digicam shake, enhancing picture sharpness, facilitating exact composition, and enabling the usage of important equipment, a tripod unlocks the complete potential of cell lengthy publicity strategies.
7. Impartial Density Filters
Impartial density (ND) filters are important instruments for attaining profitable lengthy exposures on Android cameras, notably in conditions the place ambient mild ranges would in any other case end in overexposed pictures. They operate by uniformly decreasing the quantity of sunshine getting into the digicam lens, permitting for prolonged shutter speeds with out altering colour rendition or distinction.
-
Mild Discount and Publicity Management
ND filters cut back the depth of sunshine throughout the seen spectrum, enabling the usage of longer shutter speeds even in vivid daylight. For instance, capturing a waterfall with a easy, ethereal look typically requires shutter speeds of a number of seconds. With out an ND filter, such an publicity would seemingly end in a very overexposed picture. By utilizing an appropriately robust ND filter, the sunshine is decreased, permitting for the longer shutter pace for use with out exceeding the digicam sensor’s dynamic vary.
-
Attaining Movement Blur Results
ND filters facilitate the creation of movement blur results in varied situations. Photographing shifting clouds to create a way of dynamism or capturing mild trails from automobiles at night time are widespread functions. The decreased mild afforded by ND filters permits for the usage of slower shutter speeds, which, in flip, blur the movement of those components, producing visually attention-grabbing and creative outcomes. The power of the ND filter dictates the diploma of movement blur attainable.
-
Controlling Depth of Discipline
Whereas many Android cameras function a hard and fast aperture, the usage of ND filters can not directly affect depth of subject. By decreasing the sunshine getting into the digicam, ND filters permit for the usage of wider apertures, if obtainable, with out overexposing the picture. A wider aperture leads to a shallower depth of subject, permitting for selective focus and blurring of the background, which might be aesthetically pleasing in portrait or panorama pictures.
-
Filter Varieties and Strengths
ND filters can be found in varied strengths, sometimes denoted by a numerical worth indicating the quantity of sunshine discount (e.g., ND2, ND4, ND8). Variable ND filters permit for adjustable mild discount, providing larger flexibility in several lighting circumstances. Correct collection of the filter power is crucial for attaining the specified publicity and impact. Graduated ND filters, which function a transition from darkish to clear, can be utilized to stability publicity in scenes with a large dynamic vary, reminiscent of landscapes with a vivid sky.
The applying of impartial density filters broadens the artistic prospects inside Android cell pictures, notably when pursuing lengthy publicity strategies. The power to manage mild ranges and obtain movement blur results dramatically enhances the visible affect and creative potential of captured pictures. The cautious choice and utilization of ND filters are due to this fact important for cell photographers in search of to discover the expressive capabilities of lengthy publicity pictures.
8. Utility Compatibility
The useful utility of prolonged publicity settings on Android cameras is intrinsically linked to the compatibility of the native digicam utility or third-party software program designed to manage shutter pace and different related parameters. The inherent {hardware} functionality of the digicam sensor is rendered inaccessible with out appropriate software program assist.
-
API Assist and {Hardware} Entry
The Android working system offers Camera2 API, which permits functions to entry superior digicam options together with guide shutter pace management obligatory for lengthy exposures. Older Android variations or units with restricted API assist might prohibit utility performance, stopping entry to those controls. This disparity in {hardware} entry immediately impacts the provision of lengthy publicity capabilities throughout totally different Android units.
-
Third-Get together Utility Performance
Quite a few third-party digicam functions provide prolonged management over digicam settings in comparison with inventory functions. Nonetheless, compatibility points can come up if these functions should not optimized for particular system fashions or Android variations. Crashes, instability, or the lack to manage particular {hardware} options can hinder the usage of lengthy publicity modes, rendering them ineffective. Examples embody functions that declare to assist guide shutter speeds however fail to implement them accurately on sure units, resulting in unusable or corrupted pictures.
-
RAW Seize Assist
The power to seize pictures in RAW format is essential for maximizing the dynamic vary and element captured throughout lengthy exposures. Nonetheless, not all functions assist RAW seize on all Android units. Incompatible functions might solely provide JPEG output, considerably limiting the post-processing flexibility and total picture high quality achievable with lengthy publicity strategies. This disparity can severely prohibit the artistic potential of cell lengthy publicity pictures.
-
Stability and Processing Necessities
Lengthy publicity pictures calls for steady utility efficiency as a result of prolonged processing instances required. Functions susceptible to crashing or freezing throughout lengthy exposures can result in knowledge loss and frustration. The computational depth of lengthy publicity picture processing, particularly when using options like noise discount or picture stacking, necessitates that functions are well-optimized to stop efficiency bottlenecks and guarantee dependable operation throughout a variety of Android units.
The effectiveness of lengthy publicity strategies on Android cameras depends closely on the interaction between {hardware} capabilities and software program assist. Incompatibilities arising from restricted API entry, utility instability, or lack of RAW seize assist can considerably diminish the usability and high quality of prolonged publicity pictures on cell units. Cautious collection of functions optimized for particular Android units and variations is due to this fact crucial for attaining optimum outcomes.
9. Publish-Processing Software program
Publish-processing software program constitutes an indispensable element within the workflow of lengthy publicity pictures performed with Android cameras. Because of the inherent limitations of cell digicam sensors and the challenges posed by prolonged publicity instances, pictures captured on this method typically require vital changes to realize optimum high quality. Publicity correction, noise discount, and colour stability changes are steadily essential to compensate for the traits of the sensor and the lighting circumstances encountered through the seize course of. Moreover, the usage of RAW picture codecs, supported by many superior Android digicam functions, necessitates the usage of post-processing software program to transform and edit the uncompressed knowledge. As an example, {a photograph} of an evening cityscape captured with a protracted publicity might exhibit extreme noise and require changes to the white stability to right for synthetic lighting. Publish-processing software program offers the instruments obligatory to deal with these points, enhancing the ultimate picture and realizing the photographer’s imaginative and prescient.
The sensible significance of post-processing software program extends past fundamental corrections. Superior strategies, reminiscent of picture stacking, might be employed to additional cut back noise and enhance dynamic vary. Picture stacking entails combining a number of lengthy publicity pictures right into a single composite, successfully averaging out noise and revealing larger element. This method is especially helpful in low-light circumstances the place lengthy publicity instances are required to seize ample mild. Moreover, selective changes to brightness, distinction, and colour saturation might be made to particular areas of the picture, permitting for focused enhancements and artistic results. The power to exactly management these parameters is important for refining the general aesthetic of the ultimate {photograph}. Contemplate the instance of capturing a waterfall utilizing a protracted publicity to easy the water’s floor. Publish-processing permits for the enhancement of the encircling foliage, including element and distinction with out affecting the already-blurred water.
In abstract, post-processing software program is just not merely an non-obligatory add-on however an integral component within the creation of high-quality lengthy publicity images with Android cameras. The software program offers the instruments obligatory to beat sensor limitations, right for lighting imperfections, and improve the general aesthetic of the picture. The power to carry out publicity correction, noise discount, and superior strategies like picture stacking is crucial for attaining professional-level outcomes. Recognizing the significance of post-processing and mastering the usage of applicable software program are important expertise for any Android photographer in search of to discover the artistic prospects of lengthy publicity pictures.
Ceaselessly Requested Questions
This part addresses widespread inquiries and misconceptions surrounding lengthy publicity pictures using Android digicam methods.
Query 1: What defines a “lengthy publicity” within the context of an Android digicam?
An extended publicity refers to a photographic approach the place the digicam shutter stays open for an prolonged length, sometimes starting from a number of seconds to minutes. This enables for the seize of movement blur and the buildup of sunshine, creating results reminiscent of smoothed water surfaces or mild trails.
Query 2: Is lengthy publicity pictures potential on all Android units?
Whereas the Android working system inherently helps guide digicam controls, the provision of lengthy publicity capabilities varies relying on the precise system and its digicam API implementation. Some units might lack the required {hardware} or software program assist for prolonged shutter speeds.
Query 3: What tools is important for profitable lengthy publicity pictures on an Android digicam?
A steady tripod is essential to reduce digicam shake throughout prolonged publicity instances. Impartial density (ND) filters are sometimes obligatory to scale back the quantity of sunshine getting into the lens, permitting for longer exposures in vivid circumstances. A distant shutter launch can additional cut back digicam shake.
Query 4: How can overexposure be averted when using lengthy publicity strategies on Android cameras?
The usage of ND filters is paramount in controlling mild ranges. Deciding on the suitable filter power permits for longer shutter speeds with out leading to overexposed pictures. Cautious monitoring of the publicity meter throughout the digicam utility can be important.
Query 5: What are the first challenges related to lengthy publicity pictures on Android units?
Smaller sensor sizes on Android cameras can result in elevated noise in lengthy publicity pictures. Restricted guide management over aperture in lots of Android units necessitates the usage of ND filters. Battery drain throughout prolonged publicity instances may also be a priority.
Query 6: Is post-processing obligatory for lengthy publicity images taken with Android cameras?
Publish-processing is very beneficial to optimize picture high quality. Changes to publicity, distinction, white stability, and noise discount can considerably improve the ultimate consequence. Capturing pictures in RAW format offers larger flexibility throughout post-processing.
Understanding the technical facets of lengthy publicity and the capabilities of particular Android units is crucial for attaining desired photographic outcomes.
The following part will discover particular software program options for lengthy publicity Android digicam
Lengthy Publicity Android Digicam
Attaining compelling lengthy publicity pictures on Android units requires cautious planning and execution. The next ideas will help in optimizing outcomes.
Tip 1: Prioritize Stability
The detrimental results of digicam shake are magnified throughout prolonged publicity instances. A sturdy tripod is indispensable for sustaining picture sharpness. Contemplate using a distant shutter launch or the system’s self-timer to additional reduce motion.
Tip 2: Grasp Impartial Density Filters
Impartial density (ND) filters are essential for controlling mild ranges. Choose the suitable filter power primarily based on ambient lighting and desired shutter pace. Variable ND filters provide flexibility however might introduce colour casts or cut back picture high quality. Testing and cautious analysis are beneficial.
Tip 3: Leverage RAW Picture Seize
The RAW picture format retains extra knowledge than JPEG, offering larger latitude for post-processing changes. Allow RAW seize within the digicam utility to maximise dynamic vary and reduce compression artifacts. Make the most of appropriate software program for modifying RAW recordsdata.
Tip 4: Decrease ISO
Increased ISO settings amplify noise, notably in lengthy publicity pictures. Keep the bottom potential ISO worth to protect picture readability. Compensate for decrease ISO by rising shutter pace or widening aperture (if obtainable), utilizing ND filters as wanted.
Tip 5: Follow Publicity Bracketing
Publicity bracketing entails capturing a number of pictures at totally different publicity ranges. This method will increase the chance of acquiring a correctly uncovered picture and offers further knowledge for HDR processing. Make the most of the auto-bracketing function, if obtainable, or manually regulate publicity settings.
Tip 6: Monitor Battery Life
Prolonged publicity instances can considerably drain battery energy. Make sure the Android system is totally charged earlier than commencing a protracted publicity session. Contemplate carrying a transportable energy financial institution for prolonged use.
Tip 7: Discover Utility Capabilities
Completely different digicam functions provide various levels of guide management. Examine the capabilities of third-party functions to entry options reminiscent of guide shutter pace, aperture management (if obtainable), and RAW seize. Consider utility stability and compatibility with the system.
Mastery of those strategies enhances the chance of capturing compelling lengthy publicity pictures with an Android digicam. Consideration to element and cautious execution are paramount.
The next article part will look at how these strategies translate into actual phrase utilization.
Lengthy Publicity Android Digicam
The previous evaluation elucidates the capabilities and constraints inherent within the observe of lengthy publicity pictures using Android digicam methods. The exploration encompassed technical issues reminiscent of shutter pace management, picture stabilization, and the affect of ISO sensitivity, together with sensible facets together with tripod utilization, impartial density filter utility, and the significance of post-processing strategies. A crucial understanding of those components permits the knowledgeable pursuit of artistic lengthy publicity pictures on cell platforms.
The mixing of more and more refined digicam expertise inside Android units offers alternatives for photographic exploration. Continued developments in sensor expertise, processing algorithms, and software program capabilities will additional increase the potential of cell lengthy publicity pictures. Impartial evaluation of system specs and diligent utility of mentioned strategies stay important for optimum outcomes, facilitating the creation of compelling visible narratives.
